DEFINITIONS

Ecosystem:  A community of living organisms and their interrelated physical and chemical environment; also, a land area within a climate.

Stormwater runoff: Precipitation that flows overland to surface streams, rivers, and lakes (either directly through storm sewers).

TO DO

Use the Great Swamp Water address game (Appendix 5) to familiarize students with the different flora and fauna of the Great Swamp.

6. Threats To The Great Swamp
     Watershed

The Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge and its surrounding watershed comprise a rare and diverse ecosystem that provides essential habitat for over 800 species of plants and animals. The 55-square-mile watershed also contains a wide variety of additional public lands, such as the Morristown National Historical Park and extensive county park lands. More importantly, the watershed serves hundreds of thousands of nearby residents who draw drinking water from the Passaic River, which rises in the Great Swamp watershed.

Although saved from becoming an international jetport, the Great Swamp today faces a future that is anything but secure. The reason: continuing, haphazard land development in the ten municipalities of the Great Swamp watershed. Partly due to the watershed’s proximity to the NY metropolitan area, along with its relatively abundant protected open space, today the remaining land areas are under extreme pressure from those who wish to develop the land for residential and commercial uses. Additional unplanned development will further cover the natural landscape with roads and buildings. As it does, rainwater that once would have naturally filtered down into the earth becomes stormwater runoff, filling watershed streams with ever-higher quantities of pollutants and increasing the volume of runoff following rainstorms, leading to additional flooding downstream.

The potential for excess sediment to enter streams 
is greatest during site preparation and 
construction of a new development.

Land development is governed by different regulations in each municipality. However, the success of each town in protecting its environment varies widely. While some towns are very pro-active in protecting streams, wetlands, steep slopes and other sensitive environmental features, other towns are slower in recognizing the value of protecting their natural resources.

Even without further development, the water quality of the Great Swamp is endangered by un-remediated toxic waste sites and existing stormwater runoff, which pollute regional water supplies, degrade swamp habitats, and contribute to upstream erosion and downstream flooding. Indeed, largely because of existing water-quality degradation, the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge has been cited by the Wilderness Society as one of the nation’s ten most threatened Refuges.

DEFINITIONS

Point Source Pollution: Pollutants discharged from an identifiable point, including pipes, ditches, channels, sewers, and containers.

Non-Point Source Pollution: Stormwater runoff containing pollutants; the contamination does not originate from one specific location, and pollution discharges over a broad land area.

When we think of water pollution, we frequently picture pipes discharging chemical wastes into our rivers, or oil spills such as the Exxon Valdez. These types of pollutants are known as point sources of pollution because the pollutant can easily be linked back to its source, or point of origin. Point sources of pollution are stationary locations or fixed facilities such as an industry or municipality that discharge pollutants into air or surface water through pipes, ditches, lagoons, wells, or stacks. Common sources of point source pollution are sewage treatment plants and industrial factories.

Non-point source pollutants, by contrast, are difficult to track to a specific location because they come from many sources, stemming from various activities such as agriculture, household lawn care, forestry, or road traffic. Non-point source pollution occurs when precipitation falls and moves over and through the ground, picking up and carrying away natural and manufactured pollutants. These pollutants are then deposited into lakes, rivers, wetlands, coastal waters, and even our underground sources of drinking water. Today, non-point source pollutants have surpassed point sources of pollution as the greatest threat to our nation’s water quality.

An ornamental pond suffering from an 
influx of excess nutrients, such 
as phosphorous and nitrogen.

Some common sources of non-point source pollutants include:

• Excess fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides from farms, golf courses, residential areas, and other manicured lawn areas such as office parks and ballfields.
• Oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from urban runoff and energy production.
• Sediment from improperly managed construction sites, forest lands, and eroding streambanks.
• Bacteria and nutrients from livestock, pet wastes, and faulty septic systems.

Because there is so little industry in the Great Swamp watershed, point source pollution is not the major threat to the watershed. However, there are a number of potential or actual point sources of pollution that exist and do have an impact on the water quality of the Great Swamp. These are reviewed below before moving on to non-point sources of pollution in the watershed.

DEFINITIONS

Sedimentation: The settling of soil particles (sediment) to the bottom of a waterway.

Macro invertebrates: Animals that lack a backbone (invertebrate) and are large enough to be seen with the naked eye. They are a good indicator of water quality, because the most sensitive can only survive in areas of high water quality (e.g., the stonefly is highly sensitive to pollution and is only found in streams with high water quality).

Sewage: The waste and wastewater produced by residential and commercial sources and discharged into sewers or septic systems.

Sedimentation is frequently thought of as a non-point source pollutant because it usually results from many combined sources, such as construction sites, poorly vegetated slopes, etc. However, when a large amount of sediment is released, either intentionally or accidentally, it can be considered a very serious point source pollutant.

A significant, detrimental release of sediment occurred in the Great Swamp watershed in 1996. A contractor working to dredge a heavily silted private pond released stormwater from a weir, thereby flushing a large amount of sediment along with it into Primrose Brook. The sediments released from the pond traveled as far as ½ mile downstream. The influx of sediment into the brook destroyed the majority of the macro invertebrate (MIV) populations living in the stream. In addition, approximately 100 trout were killed instantly along a distance of about 200 yards. Along the first 50 feet of the spill, a four foot thick layer of sediment was deposited. Clean-up was attempted by vacuuming the sediment from a 200-foot section of the brook. However, it took until 1999 for macro-invertebrate populations to re-establish their presence in this part of the stream. Now that the MIVs have begun to return, trout have also begun to reappear gradually as well. Unfortunately, silt deposits have thickened the streambed past the areas where clean-up took place, resulting in a continued negative impact on the MIV habitat.

Removal of trees and the disturbance of 
steep slopes greatly increases sediment 
runoff during rain events.

In the past, household, commercial and industrial waste was typically disposed of directly into our nation’s streams, lakes and oceans, under the assumption that it would simply be carried away and diluted by the fresh or saltwater. However, as our knowledge of human health and sanitation grew, so did our understanding that this method of waste disposal was not only bad for human health, but for the environment as well. Today, sewage from our homes and businesses is disposed of in one of two ways: through individual septic systems, or through sewage treatment plants. Although not foolproof, the treatment of our sewage before it is released into surface waters has greatly improved the quality of our water resources.

DEFINITIONS

Supernatant: The usually clear liquid overlying material deposited by settling, precipitation, or centrifugation.

BOD: Biochemical oxygen demand serves as a measure of the amount of oxygen used by micro organisms in breaking sewage down into stable compounds.

Sewage that is destined for a municipal treatment plant is transferred through sewers and pumping stations to the treatment plant. Here, treatment involves the removal of organic matter and is usually accomplished in two stages.

Primary treatment removes the heaviest solid material from sewage. At the plant, sewage first passes through a screen that traps the largest pieces of matter. It next flows into a grit chamber where coarse suspended solids and sands are removed after settling to the bottom. The liquid then flows into a primary sedimentation tank where suspended solids sink and form sludge. Primary treatment removes about half the suspended solids and bacteria in sewage and about 30% of the organic wastes.

Secondary treatment involves the flow of sewage into an aeration tank. In the aeration tank, a mixture of microorganisms such as bacteria and protozoa is mixed with the sewage and air is introduced. Activated sludge feeds on the bacterial material in the sewage and grows: sewage is then purified in the tank. Afterward the sewage is returned to settling tanks and then aerated a second time. Sludge from both primary and secondary treatments is collected from the various tanks and either burned, disposed of in landfills, or in dehydrated form - used as fertilizer.

Finally supernatant in the last settling tank is disinfected. After that, the treated effluent is discharged back into rivers or directly into the ocean. The sewage treatment process is designed to remove solid wastes, bacteria, pathogens, and some inorganic chemicals such as the nitrogen and phosphorous mentioned. It does not, however, remove other organic and inorganic chemicals or any pharmaceutical substances that might be in the sewage.

Settling tanks at the Woodland Sewage 
Treatment Plant in Morris Twp.

Septic Systems

An individual septic system consists of a septic tank and an underground disposal area. Pipes carry wastewater from the bathroom, kitchen and laundry to the septic system. Once in the system, heavier, more solid materials (sludge) settles to the bottom of the tank. Lighter waste materials (scum) rise to the surface. The middle layer consists of effluent, or wastewater, which is directed to a subsurface disposal area or leach field. This usually consists of an underground gravel-filled trenches or beds. This area filters out harmful microorganisms and organic chemicals over time.

Septic systems should only be constructed in certain types of soil which can filter the water at an appropriate rate. This is why "perc" tests are required by state laws before new septic systems are created. Septic systems must also be maintained properly to prevent blockage of the system or the release of disease-causing organisms into the soil. Toxic and household hazardous chemicals should never be disposed of through a septic system as they could eventually find their way into the soil and then the groundwater. Solids and scum must be pumped out every 2-3 years on average.

TO DO

Arrange for a tour of the Chatham Sewage Treatment Plant. The plant is located on Tanglewood Lane in Chatham Township. Call 673.635.8789 for tour information.

This treatment plant is designed to take in 1 million gallons of sewage daily, but currently receives only an average of 600 to 700 thousand gallons/day. This translates to 300-400 gallons per household per day. All sewage received comes from about 2,100 residential homes in Chatham. No industrial sewage is received.

The type of treatment is activated sludge (as described above). Ultraviolet light disinfection is used rather than chlorine. Treated water is released into Black Brook, which eventually runs into the Passaic River. State standards allow a fecal coliform B.O.D. of 200; Chatham Township's level is below 4. State standards for suspended solids are a B.O.D. of 12; Chatham Township maintains a level of 6 or lower.

In September of 1999, Hurricane Floyd caused over 2 million gallons of water to flow through the plant during the storm, a level exceeding the holding capacity at the plant. The additional water was a result of stormwater finding its way through holes and cracks in the aging pipes that bring wastewater to the plant from all over Chatham Township. The heavy volume of water flowing through the sewer system caused the flush system to automatically shut off aeration to the microbes, and bypass the sand filters. This was done to prevent the microbes from being washed away into Black Brook.

TO DO

Arrange for a tour of the Woodland Sewage Treatment Plant. The plant is located off of Woodland Avenue in Morris Township. Call 673.326.7220  for tour information.

This treatment plant is designed to take in 2.8 million gallons per day of sewage, but currently receives an average of about 1.6 million gallons. The sewage comes primarily from residences, but industrial sewage from Honeywell Corporation (formerly Allied Chemical) is also treated at the plant. Honeywell pre-treats its sewage before it goes out to the Woodland Plant.

The type of treatment used is tertiary treatment with sand filters. Disinfection takes place in the form of ultraviolet light, rather than chlorine. Treated water is released into Loantaka Brook. There is no detectable coliform in treated water coming from the Woodland Plant. Their B.O.D. for suspended solids is less than 2.

While Hurricane Floyd caused the Woodland plant to receive over 4.3 million gallons of water within 3 hours, it did not experience any overflow. The Woodland facility was built in 1992 as a secondary treatment plant, and had extra tanks that were used to hold water until it could be treated and released.

A serious point source threat to the Great Swamp watershed is the Rolling Knolls Landfill, located at the end of Britten Road in Chatham Township. The land on the property utilized for dumping is approximately 187 acres. A portion of the site (about 42 acres) is located within the boundaries of the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge. Loantaka Brook passes nearly 2000 feet from the dump site. Black Brook passes within 500 feet of the dump; a tributary to Black Brook appears to have been filled in by the dump. Contaminants found in the surface and sub-surface soil of the site have been detected in off-site surface water, sediments, groundwater, and fish.

Use of the property as a dump reportedly began in the 1930s. The landfill was known to accept both municipal and industrial waste from the surrounding areas. Local media accounts list Ciba-Geigy, Millmaster Chemical, and area hospitals as some of the industrial users of the site. Land filling operations were reportedly terminated in 1968.

The US Environmental Protection Agency performed a field investigation of the site in February 1985. The investigation was performed to determine whether the dump should be placed on the National Priorities List and designated a "superfund" (toxic hazardous waste) site by the US EPA.

The samples collected from the site in 1985 revealed that mercury levels in the sediment were as high as seven times the criteria used by the government to determine what is safe. Surface water concentrations of lead were more than 80 times the maximum concentration allowed under state regulations. The EPA returned to the site in 1986 to conduct more tests. Investigators bored eight holes in the ground to determine the level of waste material and soil contamination levels. They discovered numerous materials and compounds that could not be fully identified.

Later studies conducted by the US Fish and Wildlife Service and the US Geological Survey revealed even more contaminants. The Wildlife Service study turned up fish samples containing the pesticide DDT. The USGS study found concentrations of lead in shallow water along the perimeter of the landfill, and tentatively identified one of the unknown compounds discovered by the EPA as meprobamate, a barbiturate that is believed to increase the risk of fetal deformities when the mother is exposed to the drug. As a result of these findings, the EPA is continuing its investigations into this site.

In summary, the potential or actual sources of point source pollution in the Great Swamp watershed include two sewage treatment plants, the Rolling Knolls landfill, and occasional large sediment releases. However, as mentioned at the beginning of this section, point sources of pollution are somewhat less of a concern than are the many non-point sources of pollution in the watershed. This is primarily because regulations have been put into place to safeguard against excessive emissions of pollutants from the majority of these sources.

Non-point source pollution from stormwater runoff is the greatest challenge to the ecological health of the Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge and the quality of the exceptional natural resources in its watershed. In its response to the Great Swamp Watershed Advisory Committee’s Final Report in 1993, the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection endorsed a policy of "no net increase in stormwater runoff volume and pollutant loadings" in the watershed in order to help attain protection for the Refuge.

DEFINITIONS

Impervious surface coverage: Surfaces that do not allow stormwater runoff (water) to seep into the ground, such as sidewalks, roadways, driveways, and rooftops.

As a rule, the greater the amount of impervious surface coverage in a watershed, the greater the threat to water resources from non-point source pollution (Scheuler, Tom. 1995. Site Planning for Urban Stream Protection. Silver Spring, MD: The Center for Watershed Protection). Impervious surfaces are those surfaces through which water cannot drain. Driveways, roads, sidewalks, and rooftops are all examples of impervious surfaces. These surfaces collect pollutants that are emitted into the atmosphere, leaked from vehicles, or from other sources such as runoff from lawns. During storms, accumulated pollutants wash off and are delivered to streams, lakes, and ponds. Imperviousness also accelerates the speed at which water runs off, increasing erosion and streambank degradation. Relatively little impervious surface cover in a watershed can impact streams; experts calculate that stream degradation occurs at levels of only 10 to 20% imperviousness. At present, despite the considerable amount of public and private open space in our region, the Great Swamp watershed is roughly 9% impervious according to the NJDEP’s 1995 landuse/landcover analysis.

Parking lots accumulate pollutants such as oil, antifreeze, 
and litter, much of which is washed into storm drains 
during the next storm event.

Both wild and domestic animals create non-point source pollution problems through their waste products. One estimate is that an individual Canada goose can drop up to ½ pound of excrement per day, leading one local wildlife expert to comment that the handsome birds are "flying bags of Scott’s Turf Builder." Large groups of birds make lawns and sidewalks a slippery mess, and their droppings contribute to high coliform bacteria levels in the lake areas they inhabit. Residents can help reduce the problem by planting shrubs or erecting 18-inch high fences around the perimeters of lakes and ponds where the geese nest. In addition, visitors to natural areas should not feed geese, as this encourages their presence and adds to the amount of waste produced.

Animal manure pollutes air, water, and land resources. Degraded stream water quality and fish kills resulting from animal manures and feed wastes are reported each year. Such pollution can result from improper practices or careless management. Beyond the concern for pollution control and compliance with state and federal standards, livestock producers are generally interested in animal manure's fertilizer value. Fortunately, using manure nutrients in crop production is a practical method of controlling pollution. So, the value of manure as a source of plant nutrients should always be given strong consideration in animal manure management systems.

Even the family dog can contribute to pollution of the local watershed. What may seem like scant amounts of dog waste, when combined with other waste, becomes a major problem for a small receiving stream. Dropping dog waste in the storm drain may create bacterial and pathogenic problems in that storm sewer line and contribute to elevated fecal coliform levels downstream wherever the sewer line discharges into a local stream. Dog waste should always be "taken with you" and disposed of at home in the garbage or toilet.

Non-point source pollution from sedimentation occurs when wind or water runoff transports soil particles from land into a water body such as a stream or lake. Excessive sedimentation clouds the water, reducing the amount of sunlight available to aquatic plants. It also covers fish spawning areas and food supplies and clogs their gills. In addition, other pollutants such as phosphorus, pathogens, and heavy metals attach to soil particles and are transported via these particles into water bodies. Farmers and ranchers can reduce erosion and sedimentation by 20 to 90 percent by applying management measures to control the volume and flow rate of runoff. Municipalities can help reduce sediment runoff by enacting strong soil removal and sediment control ordinances and enforcing them, particularly around construction sites. And residents should not dig or move soil near a water body or leave bare soil exposed to the elements for extended periods of time.

Severe sediment disturbance around a storm drain. Any 
rainfall event will wash excessive sediment into the 
storm drain where it will then empty directly into a stream.

DEFINITIONS

Pesticides: Chemical compounds designed to control and kill pests. The term pesticides include herbicides (chemicals to kill weeds), insecticides (chemicals to kill insects), and fungicides (chemicals to fill fungus, etc. 

Integrated pest management (IPM): A system of reducing pest problems using environmental information along with variable pest control methods. These methods include physical, mechanical, biological, cultural, and chemical means of reducing pests.

Whether they are applied in residential or commercial settings, pesticides and fertilizers are easily transported via rainwater into nearby streams, lakes, ponds, and even underground aquifers or other groundwater supplies. In a review of studies around the nation in 1997, the US Geological Survey found that pesticides have been found in underground supplies in most areas studied. Chemicals that result from the original pesticide’s breakdown may be even more common in our drinking water. Unfortunately, current testing requirements in NJ do not tell residents if these degradation products are present, a problem in a state where it is estimated that at least eight million pounds of pesticides are used annually (NJ Pesticide Resource Manual for Health Professionals, 12-1).

Many pesticides are toxic to pets, other animals, fish and plants, and may easily degrade wildlife habitat. Disturbingly, some of the most common herbicides in use today - Atrazine, Simazine, Alachlor, 2,4_D, and DCPA all pose a "cancer risk," and the last two have been linked to birth defects (Drinking Water and Health: Facts on Pesticides in Drinking Water, NJ Department of Health, 4-5). And in a National Cancer Institute study, home pesticide use has now been linked with childhood leukemia (Journal of the National Cancer Institute 79[1]:39-46). Residents should consider "least toxic" means to controlling lawn and household pests and should never engage in "calendar" methods of treating these problems (in which pesticides are applied on a regular schedule, rather than as needed).

One method for controlling pests with minimal chemical use that is gaining popularity in New Jersey is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM relies on a preventive approach: identifying pests when present in a building or lawn and determining a strategy for dealing with each one. This less invasive approach relies on managing pests by inspection, monitoring, site and sanitation improvements, and mechanical, biological, and "least hazardous" chemical controls. The following steps exemplify one type of lawn care protocol that may be used in an IPM program:

1. Gradually replace disease- and pest-susceptible plants and grass with disease-resistant plants and grass;

2. Cut grass frequently enough so that no more than one third of the blade is removed;

3. Maintain grass height at 3 ½ inches;

4. Keep records of observations, actions taken, and results;

5. Always attempt the least toxic method of control first. Do not use blanket or calendar treatments;

6. Apply lime, gypsum, and minerals based on need, determined through bi-annual soil testing;

7. Encourage the proliferation of beneficial insects that feed on harmful pests (consult the Rutgers Cooperative Extension Service at 973.285.8300 for more information on beneficial insects).

Pesticide reductions of up to 90% have been achieved at federal facilities employing IPM. In the Great Swamp watershed, several communities have adopted IPM policies for indoor and outdoor use. One example is Madison Borough, where all Borough lawns and playing fields and all indoor Board of Education properties follow IPM procedures.

Fertilizers also contribute to water pollution problems in New Jersey. Excess nitrogen runoff into lakes and ponds causes "algae blooms" that cloud the water and deprive fish and other organisms of much-needed oxygen. Periodic fish "kills" throughout the state, particularly in the summer, when oxygen demand is high, are the direct result of nitrogen runoff into the water. This problem begins at the level of individual homeowners, many of whom mistakenly think that "more is better" with fertilizer applications. Soil test kits, available at most garden centers and the Rutgers Cooperative Extension Service, can identify pH and nutrient deficiencies and should be used before blanket or calendar fertilizer application are made. Fertilizer should never be applied before a heavy rain. Apply only the amount needed for the square footage of the lawn. Avoid spilling fertilizer on sidewalks or driveways, where it will wash into storm drains.

Native plants can enhance
the habitats of golf courses, attracting butterflies, birds 
and other wildlife.

Golf courses are often identified as culprits in non-point source pollution because in the past many used large amounts of pesticides and fertilizer, as well as large quantities of water for irrigation. Today, this may not be true, depending on the management of the golf course. While any human development will have some impact on the environment, steps can be taken to minimize the adverse impact. Some golf courses have gone so far as to become urban wildlife sanctuaries.

Local golf courses engage in a number of measures to reduce non-point source pollution. Some area courses plant drought-tolerant plants and grasses in order to conserve water. Other options include planting certain native plant species and grasses, such as zebra grass, that only need to be cut once or twice per season. Native plant species can be watered once at the beginning of the season and then require only minimal inputs of water and fertilizers throughout the rest of the season. Native plants also attract local wildlife such as birds, butterflies, deer, red fox, and others.

On fairways, tees and greens, watering can be done by hand and only at night as needed. Clubs also can maintain a buffer strip of tall grasses around ponds in order to prevent fertilizers and other chemical runoff into nearby water supplies. Rather than perform preventive disease and pest treatments, golf courses should treat these problems as they arise and then with environmentally sound products.

DEFINITIONS

Evaportranspiration: The return of moisture to the atmosphere from the evaporation of water from soil and transpiration form vegetation.

Transpiration: The process by which water absorbed through plant roots is returned to the atmosphere from the leaves.

After residential land use, commercial development is the second highest consumer of developed land in the Great Swamp watershed. As a rule, office parks present many potential threats to water quality and quantity such as impervious surface runoff, overuse of fertilizers and pesticides, and destruction of the natural habitats of local wildlife. Yet many corporations are beginning to take a more pro-active stance toward protection of the environment.

An example of environmental stewardship is the American Home Products (AHP) corporate headquarters building, located in the Giralda Farms Office Park in Madison. Built in 1992, AHP took many steps to ensure that the construction of their office building (estimated at 201,010 square feet of impervious building and pavement surfaces) would create as little additional stormwater runoff as possible. Because the building was constructed on very permeable soils that provide excellent groundwater recharge, steps were taken to return water running off from the additional impervious surfaces, created by rooftops and parking lots, to the soil in order to allow for infiltration into the groundwater.

The construction of a typical office park removes existing
vegetation and replaces it with large rooftops and parking 
lots, thereby reducing the amount of water that can infiltrate 
into the ground, or be returned to the atmosphere via evapotranspiration.

Copyright 2000. Great Swamp Watershed Association.